A BRIEF HISTORY OF INTERNET




In the 1960s, researchers began experimenting with linking computers to each other and to people through telephone hook-ups, using funds from the U.S Defense Department’s Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA). ARPA wanted to see if computers in different locations could be linked using a new technology known as packet switching, which had the promise of letting several users share just one communication line. Previous computer networking efforts had required line between each computer on the network, sort of like a train track on which only one train can travel at a time. The packet system allowed for creation of a data highway, in which large numbers of vehicles could essentially share the same lane. Each packet was given the computer equivalent of a map and a time stamp, so that it could be sent to the right destination, where it would then be reassembled into a message the computer or a human could use.

This system allowed computers to share data and the researchers to exchange electronic mail, or e-mail. In itself, e-mail was something of a revolution, offering the ability to send detailed letters at the speed of a phone call.

As this system, known as ARPA Net, grew, some enterprising college students (and one in high school) developed a way to use it to conduct online conferences. These started as science-oriented discussions, but they soon branched out into virtually every other field, as people recognized the power of being able to “talk” to hundreds, or even thousands, of people around the country.

In the 1970s ARPA helped support the development of rules, protocols, for transferring data between different types of computer networks. These “Internet” protocols made it possoble4 to develop the worldwide Net we have today that links all sorts of computers across national boundaries. By the close of the 1970s, links developed between ARPN Net and counterparts in other countries. The world was now tied together in a computer web.

In the 1980s, this network of networks, which became known collectively as the internet, expanded at a phenomenal rate. Hundreds, then thousands, of colleges, research companies and government agencies began to connect their computers to this worldwide Net. Some enterprising hobbyists and companies unwilling to pay the high costs of Internet access learned how to link their own systems to the Internet, even if “only” for e-mail and conferences. Some of these systems began offering access to the public .Now anybody with a computer and modem—and persistence—could tap into the world.

In the 1990s, the Net grows at exponential rates. Some estimates are that the volume of messages transferred through the Met grows 20 prevent a month. In response, government and other users have tried in recent years to expand the Net itself. Once, the main Net “backbone” in the U.S moved data at 1.5 million bits per second. That proved too slow for ever increasing amounts of data being sent over it, and in recent years the maximum speed was increased to 1.5 million and then 45 million bits per second. Even before the Net was able to reach that latter speed, however, Net experts were already figuring out ways to pump data at speeds of up to 2 billion bits per second fast enough to send the entire encyclopedia Britannica across the country in just one or two seconds. Another major change has been the development of commercial services that provide internetworking services at speeds comparable to those of the government system. In fact, by mid-1994, the U.S. government will remove itself from any day –to-day control over the working net, as region l and national providers continue to expand.

TELEPHONE

                              TELEPHONE

    Telephone is one of the most useful inventions of science and technology. It was invented by a famous American scientist Graham Bell in the year 1876.it has been the most important thing for human beings. We can not imagine the world without telephone. Now, it has been widely used all over the world.

It has many advantages. Because of the telephone, our vast world has been so narrow that we can talk to any people of the world by sitting in our own room. We don’t have to walk on foot or travel by train, bus etc. to convey the message from one place to another. We can talk on the phone. In this way, telephone has saved our money as well as most valuable time.

It is used at the time of emergency. If there is an outbreak of fire, we can call the fire brigade by using the phone. If the crime is going to take place, we call the ambulance by using phone. In this way, telephone has helped to protect our life and property.

Telephone is a great help for the busy people like businessmen, politicians, doctors etc. most businesses are done by the help of telephone. Doctors are called by phone on emergency.

Telephone plays an important role for the development of the country. So, even the poor people should have access to the telephone. The government should provide the facilities of telephone even in remote areas of the country.

Every useful thing has its disadvantages too. Sometimes we are disturbed by telephone. When we are busy in our important works, we receive the phone thinking it might be an emergency but we hear the sound of music or ‘sorry wrong number’ or ‘I love you’ etc. some bad people use the phone for their bad work like theft, robbery etc. some persons tease, vex or abuse us on the phone .

Telephone is expensive for poor people. So, it has been beyond their capacity. The government should set up many public telephones for them at different places.

We must take advantages of our telephone. We should not use our telephone fore bad works. If we misuse it, it will have adverse effects on human beings.

Money

                                      Money

      The concept of money is very difficult to define. Therefore, it is easier to understand what money consists of than to give any universally acceptable definition of money. Economists have defined money on the basis 0f these functions. The important function of money is to acts as medium of exchange. Money is what money does. Following this approach, Crowther has stated that money is” anything that is generally acceptable as a means of exchange and that at the same time acts a measure and a store of value “. But this definition has some drawbacks. Historically, many things like banana, shells, goats, metals, etc. have served as money. Animal money had the disadvantage of indivisibility and was susceptible to disease, old age, and death. It was also expensive to store. Different economics have defined money in different ways. Some of the definitions are as follows.

In Ely’s definition, “Money is anything that passes from hand to hand as medium of exchange and is generally received in final discharge of debts.” According to Marshal, “All those things which are current without doubt or special inquiry as a means of purchasing commodities and services and job defraying expenses are included in the definition of money.” Similarly, Keynes has defined money is that by the delivery of which debt-contracts and price contracts are discharged in the shape of which a store of ge3neral purchasing power is held.”

Money






The concept of money is very difficult to define. Therefore, it is easier to understand what money consists of than to give any universally acceptable definition of money. Economists have defined money on the basis 0f these functions. The important function of money is to acts as medium of exchange. Money is what money does. Following this approach, Crowther has stated that money is” anything that is generally acceptable as a means of exchange and that at the same time acts a measure and a store of value “. But this definition has some drawbacks. Historically, many things like banana, shells, goats, metals, etc. have served as money. Animal money had the disadvantage of indivisibility and was susceptible to disease, old age, and death. It was also expensive to store. Different economics have defined money in different ways. Some of the definitions are as follows.

In Ely’s definition, “Money is anything that passes from hand to hand as medium of exchange and is generally received in final discharge of debts.” According to Marshal, “All those things which are current without doubt or special inquiry as a means of purchasing commodities and services and job defraying expenses are included in the definition of money.” Similarly, Keynes has defined money is that by the delivery of which debt-contracts and price contracts are discharged in the shape of which a store of ge3neral purchasing power is held.”

IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORT

Transportation consists of all sorts of vehicles like bus, car, plane, ship train, boat etc. We cannot imagine the life without transportation. Transportation is one of the most useful inventions of science and technology. It has brought a lot of changes in our life. The world is very big but the transportation has made a small place. We can travel the whole world within twenty-four hours.

In the past people had to walk on foot from one place to another. It was very tiring and difficult. They had to walk for days. Traveling in the past was very dangerous too. Some rich people used to walk on horse or elephant’s back. Still it was not fast. People could not exchange the things easily. People were compelled to live in one place. Muscle power was only the source of power.

Later in course of time, scientists and technicians invented different kinds of vehicles which made our life easier and more comfortable than before. Now, we can travel very fast from one place to another. Japan is only a few hours travel from here.Modern means of transportation have brought a lot of changes to social norms and values, cultures and business. We don’t have to array our goods on our back. The things of one place can be shifted to far place can be shifted to far pa\laces within some hours. Spy, we are using the things made in foreign countries. We can share our ideas, feelings and thought to the people who live very far from us. We can eat our breakfast in Nepal and lunch in Hong Kong it is because of the modern means of transportation. People have refavhek the moon and are trying to reach the other planets. No development work is possible without the modern means of vehicles. Transportation brings the people close to each other. It creates a sense of national unity and patriotism. I is one of the most important factors tor the development of the country.

Friendship in Human




Human beings are after called social animals. Their each and every act must have bearing to social development. Each individual must try their level must best to demonstrate his/her bodacious job. I opine that none under the sky is complete in oneself. He may possess copious virtues but it is for certain in that he seeks for a trust worthy friend. True friend are those who willingly agree every this and that of friends he follows the practice of hepotism and has abyss though for his friends. He is infavor of ushering his friends into ever present grin of good. It is said that friends in needs are friends in deed. Here, one easily misses the figure of speech (pun) present in ‘in need’. And thus that is that. A real friend helps his friend s even in simple matter and is ready to leap into dark sea to earn his friends’ good will.

From time immemorial the nature and god has showed the blessing of friendship in the human life. It is expected that even lord Ram and lord Krishna favoured friends Sukurive respectively. Therefore it appears to me that friendship is the oldest virtue known. No one can deny that hybrid friendship is essence of admirable friends and there is no prize for guessing its backbones. When comes the topic of present context, friendship is still continuing its long lasting process but I’m afraid to say true friend and real friendship is as rear as raspberry in winter. The cradle of friendship has often blue blood with very short and pretty life. True friendship with its cortious way is just a dream to day and source of it has already hidden behind human usual concept. Human are using their guile for beneficial friendship. They are in fact hypocrites; they are in need of real sense of felling.

Thus all of us must raise bold voice to eradicate selfish friendship and must stretch our arms to establish pious friendship. Let’s make a strong knot with the world wide friendship.

Importance of English Language




English is an international language. It has worked as a link language. It is widely spoken all over the world. America, Britain, Australia, Newzeland, Canada etc. are some countries where England is spoken as native language. Because of the influence of these countries, English language spread all over the world. If we want to express our ideas or thought in front of foreign people, English is the only language to be used.

A man with good English language can widen his knowledge by reading many important books written in English. There are so many important books in English by famous writers which we cannot find in other language. It is the international language of business diplomacy, education and science and technology. Every country which seeks increased foreign trade, modern way of life and advances in science and technology has English teaching programme in schools of other levels.

This is the age of science and technology. Computer has got wide popularity all over the world. If we don’t have good knowledge of English, we cannot access to these things. If our English is very good, we can hear many programmers on radio, T.V.etc, because of which we can know the custom, culture and tradition of other people. We become like a dump man without the knowledge of English. We cannot observe the whole world closely without good command of English. English has been a most important part of our life. So, our country Nepal has also recommended English as a compulsory subject in school and campus level.